Obviously,
all the above-mentioned problems were not posed at one time and by any single
individual. Rather, they were raised gradually by several individuals,
expanding the scope of 'ilm al-kalam.
Among
these mentioned, apparently the oldest problem was that of free will and
determinism, in which the Mu'tazilah, of course, sided with free will. This is
a problem which is posed in the Qur'an. That is, the Qur'an refers to this
issue in a manner which stimulates thought on the subject. Because some verses
clearly indicate that man is free, not coerced in any of his acts. On the other
hand, there are verses which, with equal clarity, indicate that all things
depend on the Divine Will.
Here the
doubt arises that these two types of verses contradict each other. Accordingly,
some explained away the verses upholding free will and supported determinism
and predestination, while others explained away the verses which refer to the
role of Divine Will and Intention, and sided with human freedom and free will.
Of course, there is a third group which sees no contradiction between those two
sets of verses.[11]
Moreover,
this controversy between freedom and fate is frequently taken up in the
utterances of 'Ali (A). Therefore, it is almost contemporaneous with Islam
itself. However, the division of Muslims into two opposite camps, one siding
with free will and the other with fate, took place in the second half of the
lst/7th century.
It is
said that the idea of free will was first put into circulation by Ghaylan
al-Dimashqi and Ma'bad al-Juhani. The Banu Umayyah were inclined to propagate
the belief in fate and predestination among the people, because it served their
political interests. Under the cover of this belief that "everything is by
the Will of God" - "amanna bi al-qadri khayrihi wa sharrihi"
- "We believe in fate, bring as it may good or evil" - they justified
their oppressive and illegitimate rule. As a result, they repressed any notions
of free will or human freedom, and Ghaylan al-Dimashqi and Ma'bad al-Juhani
were both killed. During that period the supporters of the belief in free will
were called "Qadariyyah".
However,
the problem of the infidelity or otherwise of the evildoer (kufr al-fasiq) had
become a subject of controversy even before the issue of freedom and fate,
because it was raised by the Khawarij during the first half of the first
century about the time of the caliphate of 'Ali (A). But the Khawarij did not
defend this view in the fashion of the mutakallimun. Only when the
problem was raised among the Mu'tazilah, with the emergence of their doctrine
of manzilah bayna al-manzilatayn, it took on the colour of a problem of kalam.
The
problem of fate and freedom (jabr wa ikhtiyar) automatically brought in
its wake such other problems as these: the problem of Divine Justice; the
rational and essential goodness or badness (husn aw qubh dhati wa 'aqli) of
things and acts; dependence of Divine Acts on purposes; impossibility of
saddling a person with a duty exceeding his capacities, and the like.
During
the first half of the 2nd/8th century one Jahm ibn Sakfwan (d. 128/745) voiced
certain beliefs regarding the Divine Attributes. The writers of intellectual
and religious history of Islam (milal wa nihal), claim that the problem
of al-tawhid al-sifati (that the Divine Attributes are not separate from
the Divine Essence - which the Mu'tazilah call their "doctrine of tawhid")
and the problem of nafy al-tashbih, also called asl al-tanzih, (which
means that nothing can be likened to God) was expressed for the first time by
Jahm ibn Safwan, whose followers came to be called the "Jahmiyyah."
The Mu'tazilah followed the Jahmiyyah in their doctrines of tawhid and tanzih,
in the same way as they followed the Qadariyyah on the issue of free will.
Jahm ibn Safwan himself was a Jabrite (i.e. a supporter of fate or
predestination). The Mu'tazilah rejected his view of fate but accepted his view
of tawhid.
The
foremost among the Mu'tazilah, who established Mu'tazilism (al-'i'tizal) as
a school of thought is Wasil ibn 'Ata', who, as mentioned earlier, was a pupil
of al-Hasan al-Basri, and who parted company with his teacher in the course of
a difference, to establish his own school. Two different versions of the cause
why the Mu'tazilah came to be called by this name were mentioned earlier. Some
others say that, in the beginning the term "mu'tazilah" was
used to refer to a group of persons who remained neutral during the events of
the Battle of al-Jamal and the Battle of Siffin, such as Sa'd ibn Abi Waqqas,
Zayd ibn Thabit, and 'Abd Allah ibn 'Umar.
Later
when the issue of the faith or infidelity of fasiq was raised by the
Khawarij, Muslims divided into two camps. One group of them took the third
path, dissociating itself from the rest, being indifferent to their debates.
They adopted the same kind of neutral attitude with regard to a theoretical
problem as those like Sa'd ibn Abi Waqqas had adopted in the midst of the
heated social political climate of their time. This attitude caused them to be
called "mu'tazilah" the "indifferent," a name which
permanently stuck to them.
Wasil was
born in the year 80/699 and died in 141/758-59. His views were limited to those
on the negation of the Attributes [as distinct from the Essence of God], free
will, manzilah bayna al-manzilatayn, al-wa'd wa al-wa'id, and opinions
on some differences among the Companions.
After
Wasil came 'Amr ibn 'Ubayd, who extended and gave final shape to the views of
Wasil. After him came 'Amr ibn Abi al-Hudhayl al-'Allaf and Ibrahim ibn Sayyar
al-Nazzam. Abu al-Hudhayl and al-Nazzim, both, are considered eminent
Mu'tazilites. Kalam got its philosophical colour at their hands. Abu
al-Hudhayl studied philosophical works and wrote books in their refutation.
Al-Nazzam presented certain views in the sphere of physics, and it was he who
offered the view that bodies are constituted of atoms. Abu al-Hudhayl died,
most probably, in the year 255/869, and al-Nazzim in 231/845-46.
Al-Jahiz
(159/775-254/868), the famous author of the al-Bayan wa al-tabyin, is
another eminent Mu'tazilite of the 3rd/9th century.
During
the rule of the Banu Umayyah, the Mu'tazilah did not have good relations with
the ruling authorities. During the early days of the Banu al-'Abbas, they took
on a neutral stand.[12]
But during the rule of al-Ma'mun, who was himself learned in literature,
sciences and philosophy, they attracted the ruler's patronage. Al-Ma'mun, and
after him al-Mu'tasim and al-Wathiq, were staunch patrons of the Mu'tazilah.
All the three caliphs called themselves Mu'tazilites.
It was
during this period that a heated controversy began extending to all corners of
the vast Islamic dominions of the period. The issue under debate was whether
Speech is an attribute of the Divine Act or an attribute of the Essence.
Whether it is created and temporal (hadith) or uncreated and eternal (qadim)
like Divine Knowledge, Power, and Life. The Mu'tazilah believed that the
Qur'an is created (in time) and, therefore, is a creation of God (makhluq) and
so temporal. They also maintained that belief in the pre-eternity of the Qur'an
amounted to infidelity (kufr).
The
opponents of the Mu'tazilah, on the contrary, believed in the pre-eternity and
uncreatedness of the Qur'an. Al-Ma'mun (r. 198/813 to 218/833) sent out a
circular that any believer in the pre-eternity of the Qur'an would be liable to
punishment. Many persons were thrown into prison and subjected to
torture.
Al-Mu'tasim
(r. 218/833 to 227/842) and al-Withiq (r. 227/842 to 232/847) also followed
al-Ma'mun's practice. Of those who went to the prison during that time was
Ahmad ibn Hanbal. This policy remained in force until al-Mutawakkil assumed
power (r. 232/847 to 247/861). Al-Mutawakkil was not inclined in favour of the
Mu'tazilah, and also most of the people were opposed to them. As a result the
Mu'tazilah and their admirers suffered a reverse, nay, a reprisal. In the
purges that followed, much blood was shed and homes were ruined. The period is
remembered by Muslims as the times of "mihnah " - times of
adversity and trial.
The Mu'tazilah never
recuperated after this, and the field was left open forever for their
opponents: the Ahl al-Sunnah and the Ahl al-Hadith. Nevertheless, there
appeared some prominent personalities even during the following periods of
their decline, like, 'Abd Allah ibn Ahmad Abu al-Qasim al-Balkhi, well-known as
al-Ka'bi (d. 319/ 931); Abu 'Ali al-Jubba'i (d. 303/915-6); Abu al-Hashim
al-Jubba'i (d. 321/933) the son of Abu 'Ali al-Jubba'i; Qadi 'Abd al-Jabbar (d.
415/1024); Abu al-Hasan al-Khayyat; al-Sahib ibn 'Abbad, al-Zamakhshari (d.
538/1144); and Abu Ja'far al-'Iskafi.
