[1]. See Murtada Mutahhari, Sayri dar Nahj al-balaghah, pp.69-76, where the author has discussed the difference between
the approach of the Nahj
al-balaghah to the
problems of theology and metaphysics and the approach of Muslim mutakallimun and
philosophers to such problems. (Translator)
[2]. "Zanadiqah" (sing. zindiq), a term applied heterogeneously and relatively, is used to describe
any heretic group whose belief deviates radically from the Islamic doctrines.
The author, probably, refers by it to one or more of such sects as the Mu'attilah, who
denied the creation and the Creator, reducing the world to an unstable mixture
of the four elements, the Manawiyyah (Manichaeans); and Mazdakiyyah, who were dualists, etc. (Translator)
[3]. See Murtada Mutahhari, Insan wa sarnewisht (Man and Destiny).
[4]. See Murtada Mutahhari, 'Adl-e ilahi (Divine Justice), "the Introduction," pp. 7-43.
[5]. Translator's
Note: There are
at least seventy-five places where the various derivatives of the root kalimah occur in
the Qur'an. In three places the phrase kalam
Allah is used
in reference to the Qur'an (2:75, 9:6, 48:15). The word kalimah (word,
statement), or the plural kalimat, with reference to God occurs at least thirty times in the Qur'an,
twice with reference to Jesus (A) who is called a "kalimah" of God.
The Gospel of John designates Jesus Christ (A) as the "Eternal Word of
God." The Qur'an also speaks of Jesus as a Word of God, while according to
John's Gospel he is the Word, eternal and uncreated: "Before the world was created,
the Word already existed; he was with God, and he was the same as God." We
are further told: "Through him God made all things, not one thing in all
creation was made without him. The Word was the source of life .... the Word
became a human being and, full of grace and truth, lived among us. We saw his
glory, the glory which he received as the Father's only Son."
Probably
the Christian belief in Jesus as the uncreated kalimat Allah (Word of
God), some kind of a demiurge - a belief which probably emerged as a result of
Manichaean influence on early Christianity - had prompted the early Muslims,
engaged in polemics with Christians on the nature of Jesus Christ, to consider
in their turn, the Qur'an, the Kalam
Allah, as
uncreated and eternal.
[6]. 'Allamah Sayyid Muhammad Husayn
Tabataba'i, Usul-e
falsafah wa rawishe riyalism ("The
Principles and Method of Realism"), vol. V (chapter XIV), the introduction
by Murtada Mutahhari, who has written very elaborate footnotes on the text of
'Allamah Tabataba'is book.
[7]. 'Abd al-Rahman al-Badawi, Madhahib al- 'Islamiyyin, vol. I, p. 34. Apparently, the author does not consider the
Tahawiyyah, the Maturidiyyah and the Zahiriyyah as among the major schools of kalam, or not
important enough to be included in this brief survey. (Translator)
[8]. Translator's
Note: Both
theology and metaphysics are referred to by the common term al-'ilahiyyat (lit. theology).
Whenever only theology proper is meant, the phrase "bil-ma'na al-'akhass" (lit. in its
special sense) is added. Metaphysics, which deals with general problems, is
termed "al-'umur
al-'ammah" (lit. the
general issues).
[9]. Translator's
Note: Some of
these reasons are following: (1) Every human being is aware that his daily
acts, such as going to the market or having a walk, for instance, depend on his
will; he is free to do them if, he likes, and to abstain if he wills. (2) If
all our acts are imposed upon us, there would be no difference between a
virtuous act and a wicked one; whereas even a child makes a difference between
a kind and a cruel act. He likes the first and detests the second. If all our
acts are determined by God, they would be all alike; that is, there would be no
difference between good and evil, between virtue and vice. (3) If God creates
all our acts, it is pointless for Him to command some things and forbid others,
and consequently to reward and punish accordingly. (4) If we are not free in our
acts, it is unjust of God to create sins in creatures and then punish them on
their account.
[10]. Translator's
Note: The
notion of motion in leaps (tafrah) was first suggested by al-Nazzam. It means that a body undergoes
discrete leaps during motion. The modern parallel of this idea of motion is one
employed by quantum mechanics. Max Planck, in 1900, put forward the hypothesis
that the charged particle - usually called the oscillator, or vibrator - which
is the source of monochromatic light, absorbs and emits energy only in discrete
quanta. It changes its energy not continuously, as supposed in the classical
theory of radiation, but by sudden jumps (tafrah). In 1913 Niels Bohr, applying the quantum theory to subatomic
phenomena, published the quantum theory of the atom. Since then quantum
mechanics has become an important part of atomic physics.
[11]. Translator's
Note: The
verses 57:22 and 4:78 seem to convey a meaning contradictory to that of 4:79
and 18:29. While the former imply total predestination, the latter explicitly
support the idea of freedom. The Asha'irah attach basic importance to the
former and the Mu'tazilah to the latter kind. The Shi'ah reconcile the two sets
of verses and take an intermediary position. The following traditions from
al-Shaykh al-Saduq's al-Tawhid, pp.360-362 (Jami'at al-mudarrisin fi al-Hawzat al-'Ilmiyyah, Qum),
explain the Shi'ah position:
...Al-Imam
al-Baqir (A) and al-Imam al-Sadiq (A) said: "Indeed God is of greater
mercy than that He should coerce His creatures into sin and then punish them
for that; and God is of greater might than that He should will something and it
should fail to happen." They were asked, "Is there any third position
between absolute predestination (jabr) and absolute freedom (qadar)?" They said: "Yes, vaster than the space between the heaven and
the earth."
...Muhammad
ibn 'Ajun says: "I asked Abu 'Abd Allah (A), 'Has God left men free [to do
what they may like]?' He replied, 'God is nobler than that He should leave it
upto them [to do whatever they may like].' I said, 'Then God has imposed their
deeds upon them?' He said, 'God is more just than that He should coerce a
creature into committing some act and then punish him on its account.'
Al-Hasan
ibn 'Ali al-Washsha' says, "I asked al-Imam al-Rida (A) whether God has
given men total freedom in their acts. He said, 'God is mightier than that.' I
said, 'Then, has He coerced them into sins?' He replied, 'God is more just and
wiser than that He should do such a thing.' Then he added, 'God, the Almighty,
has said, "O son of Adam! I deserve more credit in your virtues than
yourself, and you deserve more discredit for your sins than I; you commit sins
with the power I have given you."'''
...Al-Mufaddal
ibn 'Umar reports that al-Imam Abu 'Abd Allah (al-Sadiq) (A) said,
"Neither total predetermination (jabr), nor total freedom (tafwid), but a position intermediate between the two (amr bayna amrayn)." I said, "What is amr bayna
amrayn?" He
replied, "It is as if you see someone committing a sin. You stop him, but
he does not desist. So you leave him alone. Then if he commits that sin, it
does not mean that since he did not heed you and you left him alone, you asked
him to commit it."."
See also
Murtada Mutahhari, Insan wa
sarnewisht (Man and Destiny), for an
elaborate discussion of this point.
[12]. Translator's
Note: Some
historians have advanced the theory of a connection between Mu'tazilite
theology and the 'Abbasid movement. H.S. Nyberg, in his article on the
Mu'tazilah in the Shorter
Encyclopedia of Islam, after
remarking that "Wasil adopted a somewhat ambiguous attitude regarding
'Uthman and his murderers and that he left undecided the question of knowing
who had the superior claim to caliphate, Abu Bakr, 'Umar, or 'Ali,"says
that, "All these apparently dissimilar lines converge on a common centre:
the 'Abbasid movement. It is precisely Wasil's attitude which we must regard as
characteristic of the partisans of the 'Abbasids...Every thing leads us to
believe that the theology of Wasil and the early Mu'tazilah represents the
official theology of the 'Abbasid movement. This gives us an unforced
explanation of the fact that it was the official doctrine of the 'Abbasid court
for at least a century. It seems even probable that Wasil and his disciples
took part in the 'Abbasid propaganda...." Although Nyberg's conjecture is
not sufficient to establish this hypothesis, further research may bring into
light some conclusive evidence in the matter.
[13]. Translator's
Note: Akhbarism is a
movement which started within the Shi'i world about four hundred years ago. Its
originator was Mulla Muhammad Amin ibn Muhammad Sharif al-'Astarabadi (d.
1033/1623-24). He openly attacked the Shi'ah mujtahidun in his work al-Fawa'id
al-madaniyyah, vehemently
contesting the Usuliyyun's claim that reason is one of the sources of fiqh. The Uuliyyun hold the
Qur'an, the Sunnah, reason, and ijma' (consensus) as valid sources for deduction of the rules of the
Shari'ah. The Akhbaris accepted the validity only of the Sunnah and
rejected the rest. Understanding the Qur'an, they claimed, is beyond the
capacity of a commoner, being restricted exclusively to the Ahl al-Bayt
(A).
Regarding ijma', they said
that it was an innovation (bid'ah) of the Ahl al-Sunnah. Reason, they held, is only valid in
empirical sciences. Its applicability cannot be extended to the realm of the
Shari'ah. Accordingly, they rejected ijtihad, considering the taqlid (following the authority, imitation in legal matters) of a non-Ma'sum as forbidden. However, they considered the reliability of all the ahadith of the
four books, viz. al-Kafi,
al-Tahdhib, al-'Istibsar, and Man Ia yahduruhu al-faqih as being authentic and undisputable. They held that it was the
duty of the people to directly refer to the hadith texts in order to discover the commands of the Shari'ah. There was
no need of the mujtahid as an intermediary. The Usuliyyun, and in particular such scholars as Aqa Muhammad Baqir al-Bahbahani
(1118/1706-1205/1788) and Shaykh Murtada al-Ansari (d 1281/1865-66) refuted the
Akhbari position and effectively repulsed the threat posed by them to the Shi'i
institution of ijtihad. Some
prominent Akhbaris among Shi'ah scholars were Sayyid Ni'mat Allah al-Jaza'iri
(d.1050/1640) Muhammad ibn Murtada Mulla Muhsin Fayd al-Kashani (d 1091/1680)
Shaykh Yusuf ibn Ahmad al Bahrani al Ha'iri (1107/1695-1186/1772) and Sadr
al-Din Muhammad ibn Muhammad Baqir al-Hamadani (d. after 1151/1738-39)
[14].
This treatise has been published as an appendix to his al-Lum'ah, and
'Abd al-Rahman al-Badawi has included it in the first volume of Madhahib
al-'Islamiyyin, pp.15-26.
