A religious worldview will allow or perhaps embrace
supernatural conceptions of the general order of existence
that are not present in a nonreligious worldview.
that are not present in a nonreligious worldview.
Both
religious and nonreligious worldviews have been present and important
throughout recorded history. The worldviews of persons who are following a
world religion today tend to include the following cognitive notions:
- There is a
universal spirit, god, deity or divine entity
- This divinity has
established an eternal moral order that, in part at least, can be known to
human beings
- People have the
duty to follow eternal moral dictates
- This human
conduct has long-term (beyond individual death) significance.
The
above four-part listing begins Chapter 1 ("The Religious View of Life")
of a student text for adolescents written by Brant Abrahamson and Fred Smith (Thinking
About Religion from a Global Perspective, 1997). The authors characterize
their four major elements as representing "…a life understanding that
unites Jews, Christians and Muslims with Hindus and Buddhists as well as the
followers of many newer faiths. All believe in a universal intelligence that
provides a framework for human living." By way of holding to a
religion, a person's way of life is directed toward the realization of some
transcendent end-state.
It
is important to note that any person’s worldview need not be, and in fact
probably is not, congruous with the fundamentals of any single religious
tradition or sect. A worldview is acquired on an ongoing basis, and many an
individual's worldview framework blends religious notions and practices he or
she acquires from a multitude of experiences over time. A person with exposure
to several religious traditions is likely to have a life outlook that is
"cobbled" from the varied experiences and understandings to which
they have been exposed.
Defining
"Religion" for School Curricula
A
recurring challenge to those teaching about religions in public schools is that
of defining religion in a practical way for the youngsters. Abrahamson
and Smith, just mentioned, are classroom teachers who have been teaching
directly about religion since the 1960s, and they report satisfaction in using
the language of the above "definition" (as they further flesh it out
in their materials) with youngsters and with parents and the varied
stakeholders in their community. Their "four-notion" definition
supports their making clear to youngsters the significance of conceptual
elements as "a framework for living."
The
typical focus of school study about religion is on specific institutionalized
sets of beliefs, dogmas, ethical prescriptions, and practices that center in
devotion to and service of a particular deity or deities. This facilitates
academic study about religions in terms of history of creedal formation and
comparative study. It is necessary, however, that one present religion in
terms apropos to the civic aims of public education.
A
Need to Address the Force of Conscience
If
students are to grow in understanding of the relevance of religious liberty,
American style, to our country's guarantees of citizens' civil rights, then
teachers who teach about religion need to clarify for adolescents the "power
of conscience" of human life that underlies any individual's ultimate
loyalty to a religion. Teachers need also to emphasize that people who have a
nonreligious worldview have the same power of conscience, but that their
conceptions (symbols, "aura of factuality," etc.) differ.
Viewing
religion and nonreligion as "ways of life," each way informed by
conceptual elements, is useful. The power of conscience one can derive from a
worldview (religious or nonreligious) needs to be made clear to
youngsters.
More
Example Definitions of "Religion"
Some
definitions more than others bring forth the notion of this trait (power of
conscience). They do so by way of specific mention of the emotional aspect one finds wrapped into the
cognitive framework of any worldview.
Clifford
Geertz writes (in "Religion as a Cultural System," In The
Religious Situation, edited by D. Cutler, Beacon Press, 1968, p.643) that
religion is "…a system of symbols…formulating conceptions of a general
order of existence and clothing these conceptions with such an aura of
factuality that the moods and motivation seem uniquely realistic."
Along
the same lines, Leszek Kolakowski (in Religion, Oxford University
Press, 1982, p.191) describes religion as "…the realm of worship wherein
understanding, knowledge, the feeling of participation in the ultimate reality (whether or not a personal god is
meant) and moral commitment appear as a single act."
It
seems important that any definition for religion that a teacher uses be
practicable and also capture the emotional/conceptual components of the outlook
that make the freedom of conscience our nation guarantees to all citizens,
whatever their worldview, so vital.
Corrections
and comments are invited. [Last
updated: 5/02/01]
Author: Mynga Futrell, Ph.D.
Author: Mynga Futrell, Ph.D.
Non Religious Worldview
Nature
and Deity
No
recognition is given to any metaphysical forces or god-like beings. There is
the natural world only—no divine power. [Without scientific or substantial
evidence of “something else” (supernatural) existing, the natural is taken as
“all that is.” Human pronouncements are discounted as valid sources of truth,
and it is only human statements/writings—which do not cohere—that exist as
verification for claims of divine entities.]
Understanding
of Beginnings
There
is a scientific view of the beginning of our universe. (This understanding
continues to advance as science progresses and new data are obtained.)
Recent
portrayal. Evidence
from science indicates that at a distant point in time all matter was located
at a tiny point source of energy/matter, which “exploded” into a series of
events/materials that resulted in our current universe (a physical event
popularly described as the “big bang”). Observation of the movement of
celestial bodies clearly indicates they are all moving away from each other.
Conception
of Time
Time
is perceived in a scientific way—as a function of universal principles and
physical laws and increasingly well described by theories and equations.
Scientific
depiction: Time in
all normal events on earth is linear. In extremes, however (e.g., in linear
accelerators, space travel), time can flow more slowly or quickly or, as in the
case of black holes, time can cease to exist.
Mortality
(and Afterlife)
There
is one life for an individual, and no afterlife. “When you are dead you are
dead” captures the notion that, at death, the body simply decays. Some
rationalize “living on” through progeny, or through the consequences of actions
taken during life (e.g., good works). Some would characterize death as a
rejoining with the universe. Broadly held is the concept that the single life
span “is all there is,” and so whatever time is available had best be used
wisely.
Venerated
Literature
No
writings are sacred. Much authoritative Western nonreligious literature draws
from great minds of philosophy (e.g., Plato, Socrates, Spinoza, Hume, Locke,
Russell), from major contributors in science (Einstein, Darwin, Huxley, Newton,
Copernicus, Galileo) and from writings of actors in Enlightenment era politics
(Voltaire, Mary Wollstonecraft, Thomas Paine, Jefferson, and Ethan Allen). The
nonreligious have a tendency to be voracious readers of all types of
literature, including influential religious literature.
Prophets
and Founders
The
philosophy of the nonreligious is very old, and in antiquity included such
groups as Skeptics and Epicurians (in Western tradition), and in Asia the
Carvaka and Lokayata schools. Early Western philosophers from which
nonreligious philosophy draws concepts take in Thales of Miletus, Pythagorus,
Heraclitus, Pericles, Protagoras, Socrates, Hippocrates, Plato, and Roger
Bacon. The freethought mold integrates reasoning from Omar Khayyam and Akbar
(Mughal emperor of India) along with elements of Confucian and Buddhist
teaching. Recent influences include Mark Twain, Robert Green Ingersoll, Charles
Darwin, Bertrand Russell, and Carl Sagan.
Rites
of Birth and Death
There
are no special rituals for birth or death, but there may be distinctive
observances consisting of secular elements excerpted from familiar customs of
the cultural surroundings. For example, in the United States, holding a solemn
gathering and eulogizing the deceased person is commonplace. More frequently,
friends and/or family may arrange for a “joyful celebration of life” memorial
event in addition to or in lieu of a cremation or burial ceremony.
Festivals
and Calendar Events
Absent
holy days (there are none), persons may nevertheless engage in festivities and
commemorations (for examples winter and summer solstice celebrations, or
Darwin's Birthday). In the United States, freethinkers may commemorate
“Freethought Day,” the anniversary date of a ruling by the colonial governor of
Massachusetts that outlawed use of spectral evidence, thereby helping bring to
an end the Salem Witch trials.
Buddhist
Worldview
Nature
and Deity
Generally
recognizes the existence of “supernatural” or god-like beings, but adherents do
not believe in an omnipotent creator God. All Buddhists recognize a
transcendent truth and some conceive this in terms of a “Buddha Nature” which
infuses everything.
Understanding
of Beginnings
The
Creation is cyclical, having no start and no end. For Buddhists, it is part of
the wheel of suffering to which we are attached through rebirth. Creation is
seen as just part of this wheel.
Conception
of Time
Time
is cyclical. Each existence continues through death and rebirth so long as the
sense of self keeps us attached to this world. Individual desires are finally
quenched (nirvana) but the world continues on its cyclical pattern. Some forms
of Buddhism believe in a future Buddha who will come and bring release to all
beings.
Mortality
(and Afterlife)
At
death, each life continues in some other form—human, divine or animal,
depending upon the results of behavior in the last life. The goal of Buddhism
is to extinguish the flame of wanting or attachment to the sense of self so
that rebirth does not occur and Nirvana is attained.
Venerated
Literature
Sacred
are the teachings of the Buddha, handed down in a collection of writings known
as the “Three Baskets” (Tri-Pitaka) and comprising the discourses of the
Buddha, the rules of discipline for Buddhist monks and nuns, and further
knowledge—the “great teaching basket.” Three versions survive: one in the Pali
language (used by southern Buddhists), and two Mahayana versions in Chinese and
in Tibetan (used by northern Buddhists). The Mahayana versions include later
books not recognized as authoritative by southern Buddhists.
Prophets
and Founders
The
Buddha was an Indian Prince, Siddhartha Gautama, who lived in the 5th century
BCE. He became known as the “Enlightened One” (the Buddha) when he understood
the cause of suffering and the way to end suffering.
Rites
of Birth and Death
Buddhists
invite monks and nuns to attend such events and to read the scriptures, but the
main ceremonies are generally from older traditions. In Theravada Buddhism,
funerals are occasions for teaching about suffering and impermanence and for
chanting paritta (protection) in order to gain and transfer merit for the sake
of the deceased.
Christian
Worldview
Festivals
and Calendar Events
Wesak celebrates the life of the
historical Buddha. Dhammacakka celebrates the Buddha's first sermon
where he taught the principles of Buddhism.
Nature
and Deity
One
God, creator of all things, is considered to be three “persons” (the Trinity):
God the Father / the Son (Jesus Christ) / the Holy Spirit. These three aspects
of God co-exist within a single Godhead.
Understanding
of Beginnings
All
that exists does so through God who began creation at a definite point in time
and who will end creation. God created from nothing and all that he creates has
purpose and meaning.
Conception
of Time
Time
is linear, though there are two very different approaches. In one, there is the
suggestion that through human lives a renewed and peaceful world will be
created—the Kingdom of God on earth. In the second, the world becomes so full
of suffering and wrongdoing that an antichrist will appear, bringing conflict.
Christ then returns and defeats the antichrist in a great battle inaugurating a
reign of peace.
Mortality
(and Afterlife)
There
is one life only. Beliefs about death vary. The soul may ascend to heaven and
be judged by God; or, the soul and the body may be raised on the Day of
Judgment, at the end of time, and will then be judged.
Venerated
Literature
The
Bible is sacred scripture. It consists of the “Old Testament”—the books of the
Hebrew Bible—plus the “New Testament.” The books of the latter were fixed circa
280 CE and are the Gospels, Acts of the Apostles, letters from writers such as
Paul and James and the Book of Revelation.
Prophets
and Founders
The
faith is named after Jesus Christ, who was born in Palestine circa 4 BCE and
crucified circa 29 CE. Christians believe he is the Son of God, part of the
Trinity, and that he came to earth in human form to bring humanity back to
fellowship with God.
Rites
of Birth and Death
Many
Christians are baptized into the Church while they are babies, but this can be
done at any time in life. At death, Christians are laid to rest in the hope of
the resurrection of the dead. Cremation and burial are both acceptable.
Festivals
and Calendar Events
The
main festivals celebrate the life of Jesus Christ: Christmas,
celebrating his birth, Easter, marking his death and resurrection; Ascension
Day, celebrating his return to Heaven. Pentecost celebrates the
coming of the Holy Spirit onto the Disciples
Hindu
Worldview
Nature
and Deity
There
is one Godhead or Divine Power, with innumerable forms. Three major forms are:
Brahma, creator of each universe; Vishnu, sustainer and defender; and Shiva,
destroyer and re-creator. (Vishnu has ten main forms or avatars, which come to
the help of the universe. These include Krishna and Rama.)
Understanding
of Beginnings
Creation
is cyclical. From the destruction of a previous universe, Brahma arises to
create a new universe; Vishnu sustains it through a cycle of birth, growth and
decline; Shiva destroys the universe and the cycle begins again.
Conception
of Time
Time
is cyclical. The world passes through various stages, from birth to growth to
decline. We are currently in Kali Yuga, the age of decline. The world will
eventually be destroyed, only for a new world to appear in the distant future.
Mortality
(and Afterlife)
Depending
upon the karma—the consequences of action in this present life—at death, the
soul (atman) is reborn in either a higher or lower physical form. Through
devotion or correct behavior it is possible to ascend through the orders of
reincarnation, achieve liberation from the cycle of rebirth, and be reunited
with the Divine Power.
Venerated
Literature
There
are many sacred books, of which the Bhagavad Gita and the Upanishads
are seen as the most important.
Prophets
and Founders
There
are thousands of Hindu gurus, reflecting the huge variety of teachings. A guru,
or teacher, is someone who has gained enlightenment through knowledge and
practice. A Hindu wanting to follow a particular path of prayer, meditation and
devotion usually has a guru.
Rites
of Birth and Death
Before
birth and in the first months of life, there are many ceremonies. These
include: reciting the scriptures to the baby in the womb; casting its horoscope
when it is born; cutting its hair for the first time. At death, bodies are
cremated and the ashes thrown on to a sacred river. The River Ganges is the
most sacred river of all.
Festivals
and Calendar Events
There
are many festivals, of which the main ones are: Mahashivaratri
celebrating Shiva; Holi, the harvest festival in honor of love and of
Krishna; Divali, celebrating the New Year and Rama and Sita, central
figures of The Ramayana, a Hindu epic.
Muslim
Worldview
Nature
and Deity
There
is but one God, Allah (Arabic term). Allah is indivisible, has no equals, is
the creator of all and has spoken to humanity through many prophets, of whom
Muhammad is the last. Allah is the supreme lawgiver, and his laws are for the
whole of creation, not just for human beings.
Understanding
of Beginnings
Allah
is the creator. He simply says “Be” and all things exist. Allah guides his
creation and has a purpose for all forms of life within creation.
Conception
of Time
Time
is linear. At the end of time, Allah will announce the Judgment Day and the
world will end. All will be judged on that day.
Mortality
(and Afterlife)
There
is one life only. After death, the individual awaits the Day of Judgment when
all will be brought back to life and judged. Paradise awaits those who have
lived according to the will of Allah and those who have failed to do so cannot
enter Paradise.
Venerated
Literature
Seen
as the infallible word of Allah is the Qur'an (Koran), which the Angel
Jibra'il dictated to Muhammad in the first part of the seventh century CE.
Muslims believe that the Qur'an was written by Allah before time began. Also
sacred, the sayings (including actions and silent approval) of the Prophet
Muhammad, the Hadith.
Prophets
and Founders
Islam
means to be in submission to Allah, who is seen as its founder. There have been
numerous prophets who came to remind people of Allah’s will, such as Abraham,
Moses and Jesus. The final prophet is believed to be Muhammad who lived in the
6th-7th century CE.
Rites
of Birth and Death
At
birth, the call to prayer is whispered into the baby's ear. After seven days
the baby is given a name, shaved, and baby boys are circumcised. At a person’s
death, the body is washed as if ready for prayer and then buried as soon as
possible. Cremation is not allowed.
Festivals
and Calendar Events
The
Muslim calendar is lunar and moves eleven days earlier each year, compared with
the Western solar calendar. Ramadan is the month of fasting; Eid ul
Fitr (Idul-Fitr) marks the end of Ramadan and the giving of the
Qur'an to Muhammad; Eid ul Adha (Idul-Adha) is the time of the Haj, the
pilgrimage to Mecca and celebrates the obedience of the Prophet Ibrahim.
Jewish Worldview
Nature
and Deity
One
God (whose name must not be pronounced) has created all things and, through his
special covenant with the Jews, has guided human life and destiny.
Understanding
of Beginnings
God
is the creator and the Book of Genesis says he created in six days and rested
on the seventh. God will end creation in his own time.
Conception
of Time
Time
is linear. A "Chosen One of God" will come when either the world has
become a better place or when it has reached the point of greatest trouble. The
coming of this Messiah will herald an era of world peace.
Mortality
(and Afterlife)
There
is one life only. Most religious Jews believe the individual awaits the Day of
Judgment when God will raise all to life and judgment. Some, however, believe
that the soul is judged immediately after death.
Venerated
Literature
The
Hebrew Bible has three parts: The Torah (Five Books of Moses), the Prophets and
the Writings such as Esther and the Psalms. The Torah contains laws, doctrine
and guidance on way of life, as well as accounts of the early history of the
Jewish people and their relationship with God.
Prophets
and Founders
Through
the covenant with Abraham (considered the patriarch) and his descendants, God
chose the Jews as his special people. This covenant was reaffirmed and
consolidated with Moses, when God gave Moses the Law by which the Israelites
were to live.
Rites
of Birth and Death
Baby
boys are circumcised eight days after birth. The names of girls are announced
in the synagogue on the first Sabbath after birth. Burial takes place within 24
hours of death and cremation is very rare. The family is in full mourning for
seven days and, for eleven months, the special prayer Kadish is said every day.
Festivals
and Calendar Events
Passover or Pesach celebrates the
exodus of the Israelites from Egypt (the seder meal in the home is observed); Shavuot
marks the giving of the Law to Moses; Rosh Hashanah is the New Year
festival, and Yom Kippur, the day of repentance, Chanukah (Hanukkah)
celebrates the survival of the Jews.
Sikh worldview
Nature
and Deity
There
is One God, who is the true Guru (teacher). Unbound by time or space and beyond
human definition, he makes himself known to those who are ready.
Understanding
of Beginnings
God
is the creator of all; so all life is good. Attachment to this world means
rAebirth, so that release from this world is the highest goal.
Conception
of Time
Time
is cyclical, and beliefs associated with time are similar to those of Hinduism.
Mortality
(and Afterlife)
Each
individual has many reincarnations, but being born a human means the soul is
nearing the end of rebirth. God judges each soul at death and may either
reincarnate the soul or, if pure enough, allow it to rest with him.
Venerated
Literature
The
Guru Granth Sahib, a collection of writings and hymns by some of the ten Gurus
of Sikhism, plus material from Muslim and Hindu writers. It was compiled
mid-16th century and was made the eleventh and final Guru of Sikhism at the
death of the tenth Guru in 1708.
Prophets
and Founders
Guru
Nanak (1469-1539) was the first Guru of Sikhism and was followed by nine more
human Gurus. The tenth and last was Guru Gobind Singh (1675-1780), who
appointed the Scriptures, the Granth Sahib, as the final Guru.
Rites
of Birth and Death
At
birth, the Mool mantra, the core teaching of Sikhism, is whispered into the
baby's ear. The baby is named at the gurdwara, or place of worship. The Guru
Granth Sahib is opened and the first letter of the first word on the page gives
the first letter of the baby's name. At death, the body is cremated and the
ashes thrown onto running water.
Festivals
and Calendar Events
Baisakhi celebrates the foundation of the
Khalsa; other major festivals include the Martyrdom of Guru Arjan Dev,
the birthday of Guru Nanak, the founder of Sikhism; the Martyrdom of Guru Tegh
Bahadur; and the birthday of Guru Gobind Singh.
Tao worldview
Nature
and Deity
There
are universal forces of nature – yin and yang. Through creative tension with
each other they keep the world spinning and moving. (Popular Taoism has
thousands of gods, but no single supreme deity.)
Understanding
of Beginnings
Creation
as an event is not of great importance. There are various stories. In essence,
the twin forces of yin and yang were created from nothing rather than by any
being, and from these twin forces come all life.
Conception
of Time
There
are elements of both the linear and the cyclical. There is no end to the world,
just a personal journey, either to better and better rebirths, or into
immortality.
Mortality
(and Afterlife)
At
death, the soul is judged by up to ten different gods of Hell, is purified by
punishment then reborn again. Certain schools believe death is avoidable. By
practicing special meditations or eating certain things, one can make the body
immortal so that the person lives forever.
Venerated
Literature
There
are over 4000 books in the Taoist Canon, from the fourth century BCE to the
14th century CE. Each school has its own favorites and many look back to the Tao
Te Ching (translated, “The Way and Its Power”) of Lao Tzu, compiled circa
fourth century BCE, as their initial source of inspiration.
Prophets
and Founders
There
have been various figures, ranging from mythical emperors to semi-historical
figures such as Lao Tzu (5th century BCE) and Chang Tao Ling (2nd century CE),
who founded popular Taoism.
Rites
of Birth and Death
Horoscopes
are cast at birth. After a month a naming ceremony is held. At death, the body
is buried and paper models of money, houses and cars are burnt to help the soul
in the afterlife. After about ten years the body is dug up and the bones buried
again in an auspicious site.
Festivals
and Calendar Events
There
are hundreds of local festivals. The main festivals: Chinese New Year; Ching
Ming, for the veneration of the dead; the Hungry Ghosts' festival for the
release of the restless dead; and the Moon Festival, celebrating the harvest
moon.
Deist Worldview
Nature
and Deity
A
“Creator” has apparently formed our universe (the mechanistic universe of
Descartes and Newton) and set it in motion by mathematical laws that include
rational principles of conduct. Divine control is consistent and rational.
After establishing these laws, the Creator has retired from the scene, leaving
the Creation to pursue its rational course. Having shaped the universe as a
perfectly rational machine, this deity is aloof (not a God of miracles and
revelation).
Understanding
of Beginnings
Human
reason, addressed to the laws of nature, yields the conclusion that there must
have been a creation event, but that the Creator who established those natural
laws (Supreme Lawmaker) must also abide by them and hence remain apart from the
product of creation. The Creator is not involved in the ongoing universe or in
present-day natural or human affairs.
Conception
of Time
Time
is linear, since a Creation.
Mortality
(and Afterlife)
Although
the Deists denied the possibility of the supernatural as it might appear in
miracles or any phenomena contrary to natural laws, some conceded the
philosophical doctrine of a hereafter along with their acceptance of natural
laws and rational principles of conduct. Their belief was that a rational
person, deducing the advantages of a moral life, would regulate his conduct so
as to receive salvation in a life to come. This moral way of life and the
salvation have always been available to all people, as a part of the
fundamental laws that the Creator gave his creation. These “immortal” deists
rejected any future rewards and punishments, though, as did all the Deists.
Reasoning of the “mortal” deists yielded a denial of immortality.
Venerated
Literature
Although
not sacred to the Deists, the texts of Descartes and Newton underlay the
rational temper of their “religion of reason” and yielded the mechanistic
universe they perceived. Deistic context was one of Christianity, with its
Bible, but the Deists rejected revelation and the dogma and tenets of the
traditional religion. (David Hume’s Essay on Miracles was but one of
many of the reasoned attacks on Christian scripture.)
Prophets
and Founders
As
it consists of emergent and changing doctrines of criticism and rational
thought, Deism has no prophets or founders. But, in evolving over the period
from about 1650 to the early 19th century, it drew upon the western
philosophers that had gone before and the currents of the burgeoning scientific
advances and Enlightenment thinking in Europe. Early names in English deism
include Lord Herbert of Cherbury, Antony Collins, and Matthew Tindal. It is to
Herbert we may attribute the naissance of a rationalistic form of religion—the
religion of reason. It began more as a residue of truths common to all forms of
positive religion, leaving aside their distinctions, but progressed to depart
from theism, particularly in its emphasis that Nature ran its own course
without God’s concern or interference, and further from Christianity in that
salvation was not reserved to Christians alone.
Rites
of Birth and Death
Deists
of the 18th century participated to varying degrees in the rites and
observances stipulated by their surrounding (mostly Christian) communities.
Those in the upper classes, though differing in belief to the orthodoxy, still
continued generally loyal to convention, and so they remained technically
within their churches and participated on social grounds as expected (e.g.,
having children baptized, allowing a religious burial ceremony).
